The Persian Empire of Ancient Iran

Irans history as a nation of people speaking an Indo-European language did not begin until the middle of the second millennium B.C. Before then, Iran was occupied by peoples with a variety of cultures. There are numerous artifacts attesting to settled agriculture, permanent sun-dried- brick dwellings, and pottery-making from the sixth millennium B.C. The most advanced area technologically was ancient Susiana, present-day Khuzestan Province. By the fourth millennium, the inhabitants of Susiana, the Elamites, were using semipictographic writing, probably learned from the highly advanced civilization of Sumer in Mesopotamia (ancient name for much of the area now known as Iraq), to the west. Sumerian influence in art, literature, and religion also became particularly strong when the Elamites were occupied by, or at least came under the domination of, two Mesopotamian cultures, those of Akkad and Ur, during the middle of the third millennium. By 2000 B.C. the Elamites had become sufficiently unified to destroy the city of Ur. Elamite civilization developed rapidly from that point, and, by the fourteenth century B.C., its art was at its most impressive. Immigration of the Medes and the Persians Small groups of nomadic, horse-riding peoples speaking Indo-European languages began moving into the Iranian cultural area from Central Asia near the end of the second millennium B.C. Population pressures, overgrazing in their home area, and hostile neighbors may have prompted these migrations. Some of the groups settled in eastern Iran, but others, those who were to leave significant historical records, pushed farther west toward the Zagros Mountains. Three major groups are identifiable--the Scythians, the Medes (the Amadai or Mada), and the Persians (also known as the Parsua or Parsa). The Scythians established themselves in the northern Zagros Mountains and clung to a seminomadic existence in which raiding was the chief form of economic enterprise. The Medes settled over a huge area, reaching as far as modern Tabriz in the north and Esfahan in the south. They had their capital at Ecbatana (present-day Hamadan) and annually paid tribute to the Assyrians. The Persians were established in three areas: to the south of Lake Urmia (the tradional name, also cited as Lake Orumiyeh, to which it has reverted after being called Lake Rezaiyeh under the Pahlavis), on the northern border of the kingdom of the Elamites; and in the environs of modern Shiraz, which would be their eventual settling place and to which they would give the name Parsa (what is roughly present-day Fars Province). During the seventh century B.C., the Persians were led by Hakamanish (Achaemenes, in Greek), ancestor of the Achaemenid dynasty. A descendant, Cyrus II (also known as Cyrus the Great or Cyrus the Elder), led the combined forces of the Medes and the Persians to establish the most extensive empire known in the ancient world. By 546 B.C., Cyrus had defeated Croesus*, the Lydian king of fabled wealth, and had secured control of the Aegean coast of Asia Minor, Armenia, and the  Greek colonies  along the Levant. Moving east, he took Parthia (land of the Arsacids, not to be confused with Parsa, which was to the southwest), Chorasmis, and Bactria. He besieged and captured Babylon in 539 and released the Jews who had been held captive there, thus earning his immortalization in the Book of Isaiah. When he died in 529**, Cyruss kingdom extended as far east as the Hindu Kush in present-day Afghanistan. His successors were less successful. Cyruss unstable son, Cambyses II, conquered Egypt but later committed suicide during a revolt led by a priest, Gaumata, who usurped the throne until overthrown in 522 by a member of a lateral branch of the Achaemenid family, Darius I (also known as Darayarahush or Darius the Great). Darius attacked the Greek mainland, which had supported rebellious Greek colonies under his aegis, but as a result of his defeat at the  Battle of Marathon in 490  was forced to retract the limits of the empire to  Asia Minor. The Achaemenids thereafter consolidated areas firmly under their control. It was Cyrus and Darius who, by sound and farsighted administrative planning, brilliant military maneuvering, and a humanistic worldview, established the greatness of the Achaemenids and in less than thirty years raised them from an obscure tribe to a world power. The quality of the Achaemenids as rulers began to disintegrate, however, after the death of Darius in 486. His son and successor, Xerxes, was chiefly occupied with suppressing revolts in Egypt and Babylonia. He also attempted to conquer the Greek Peloponnesus, but encouraged by a victory at Thermopylae, he overextended his forces and suffered overwhelming defeats at Salamis and Plataea. By the time his successor, Artaxerxes I, died in 424, the imperial court was beset by factionalism among the lateral family branches, a condition that persisted until the death in 330 of the last of the Achaemenids, Darius III, at the hands of his own subjects. The Achaemenids were enlightened despots who allowed a certain amount of regional autonomy in the form of the satrapy system. A satrapy was an administrative unit, usually organized on a geographical basis. A satrap (governor) administered the region, a general supervised military recruitment and ensured order, and a state secretary kept official records. The general and the state secretary reported directly to the central government. The twenty satrapies were linked by a 2,500-kilometer highway, the most impressive stretch being the  royal road  from Susa to Sardis, built by command of Darius. Relays of mounted couriers could reach the most remote areas in fifteen days. Despite the relative local independence afforded by the satrapy system, however, royal inspectors, the eyes and ears of the king, toured the empire and reported on local conditions, and the king maintained a personal bodyguard of 10,000 men, called the Immortals. The language in greatest use in the empire was Aramaic. Old Persian was the official language of the empire but was used only for inscriptions and royal proclamations. Darius revolutionized the economy by placing it on a silver and gold coinage system. Trade was extensive, and under the  Achaemenids  there was an efficient infrastructure that facilitated the exchange of commodities among the far reaches of the empire. As a result of this commercial activity, Persian words for typical items of trade became prevalent throughout the  Middle East  and eventually entered the English language; examples are, bazaar, shawl, sash, turquoise, tiara, orange, lemon, melon, peach, spinach, and asparagus. Trade was one of the empires main sources of revenue, along with agriculture and tribute. Other accomplishments of Dariuss reign included codification of the data, a universal legal system upon which much of later Iranian law would be based, and construction of a new capital at Persepolis, where vassal states would offer their yearly tribute at the festival celebrating the spring equinox. In its art and architecture, Persepolis reflected Dariuss percept ion of himself as the leader of conglomerates of people to whom he had given a new and single identity. The Achaemenid art and architecture found there is at once distinctive and also highly eclectic. The Achaemenids took the art forms and the cultural and religious traditions of many of the ancient Middle Eastern peoples and combined them into a single form. This Achaemenid artistic style is evident in the iconography of Persepolis, which celebrates the king and the office of the monarch. Envisioning a new world empire based on a fusion of Greek and Iranian culture and  ideals,  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹Alexander the Great  of Macedon accelerated the disintegration of the Achaemenid Empire. He was first accepted as leader by the fractious Greeks in 336 B.C. and by 334 had advanced to Asia Minor, an Iranian satrapy. In quick  succession,  he took Egypt, Babylonia, and then, over the course of two years, the heart of the  Achaemenid Empire--Susa, Ecbatana, and Persepolis--the last of which he burned. Alexander married Roxana (Roshanak), the daughter of the most powerful of the Bactrian chiefs (Oxyartes, who revolted in present-day Tadzhikistan), and in 324 commanded his officers and 10,000 of his soldiers to marry Iranian women. The mass wedding, held at Susa, was a model of Alexanders desire to consummate the union of the Greek and Iranian peoples. These plans ended in 323 B.C., however, when Alexander was struck with fever and died in Babylon, leaving no heir. His empire w as divided among four of his generals. Seleucus, one of these generals, who became ruler of Babylon in 312, gradually reconquered most of Iran. Under Seleucuss son, Antiochus I, many Greeks entered Iran, and Hellenistic motifs in art, architecture, and urban planning became prevalent. Although the Seleucids faced challenges from the  Ptolemies of Egypt  and from the growing power of Rome, the main threat came from the province of Fars (Partha to the Greeks). Arsaces (of the seminomadic Parni tribe), whose name was used by all subsequent Parthian kings, revolted against the Seleucid governor in 247 B.C. and established a dynasty, the Arsacids, or Parthians. During the second century, the Parthians were able to extend their rule to Bactria, Babylonia, Susiana, and Media, and, under Mithradates II (123-87 B.C.), Parthian conquests stretched from India to Armenia. After the victories of Mithradates II, the Parthians began to claim descent from both the Greeks and the Achaemenids. They spoke a language similar to that of the Achaemenids, used the Pahlavi script, and established an administrative system based on Achaemenid precedents. Meanwhile, Ardeshir, son of the priest Papak, who claimed descent from the legendary hero Sasan, had become the Parthian governor in the Achaemenid home province of Persis (Fars). In A.D. 224 he overthrew the last Parthian king and established the Sassanid dynasty, which was to last 400 years. The Sassanids established an empire roughly within the frontiers achieved by the Achaemenids  [c, 550-330 B.C.;  with the capital at Ctesiphon. The Sassanids consciously sought to resuscitate Iranian traditions and to obliterate Greek cultural influence. Their rule was characterized by considerable centralization, ambitious urban planning, agricultural development, and technological improvements. Sassanid rulers adopted the title of shahanshah (king of kings), as sovereigns over numerous petty rulers, known as  shahrdars. Historians believe that society was divided into four classes: the priests, warriors, secretaries, and commoners. The royal princes, petty rulers, great landlords, and priests together constituted a privileged stratum, and the social system appears to have been fairly rigid. Sassanid rule and the system of social stratification were reinforced by Zoroastrianism, which became the state religion. The Zoroastrian priesthood became immensely powerful. The head of the priestly class, the  mobadan  mobad, along with the military commander, the  eran  spahbod, and the head of the bureaucracy, were among the great men of the state. Rome, with its capital at  Constantinople, had replaced Greece as Irans principal Western enemy, and hostilities between the two empires were frequent. Shahpur I (241-72), son and successor of Ardeshir, waged successful campaigns against the Romans and in 260 even took the emperor Valerian prisoner. Chosroes I (531-79), also known as Anushirvan the Just, is the most celebrated of the Sassanid rulers. He reformed the tax system and reorganized the army and the bureaucracy, tying the army more closely to the central government than to local lords. His reign witnessed the rise of the  dihqans  (literally, village lords), the petty landholding nobility who were the backbone of later Sassanid provincial administration and the tax collection system. Chosroes was a great builder, embellishing his capital, founding new towns, and constructing new buildings. Under his auspices, too, many books were brought from India and translated into Pahlavi. Some of these later found their way into the literature of the Islamic world. The reign of Chosroes II (591-628) was characterized by the wasteful splendor and lavishness of the court. Toward the end of his  reign  Chosroes IIs power declined. In renewed fighting with the Byzantines, he enjoyed initial successes, captured Damascus, and seized the Holy Cross in Jerusalem. But counterattacks by the Byzantine emperor Heraclius brought enemy forces deep into Sassanid territory. Years of warfare exhausted both the Byzantines and the Iranians. The later Sassanids were further weakened by economic decline, heavy taxation, religious unrest, rigid social stratification, the increasing power of the provincial landholders, and a rapid turnover of rulers. These factors facilitated the Arab invasion in the seventh century. Data as of December 1987Source: Library of Congress Country Studies Corrections *Jona Lendering  points out that a 547/546 date for the fall of Croesus is based on the  Nabonidus Chronicle  whose reading is uncertain. Rather than  Croesus  it may have been the ruler of Uratu. Lendering says the fall of Lydia should be listed as the 540s. **He also advises that cuneiform sources start to mention Cambyses as sole ruler in August 530, so the date of his death the following year is wrong.

The Overcrowding Of Prison And Massachusetts - 1261 Words

After exploring options of which states had the most overcrowding in prisons, the best option to go with was California because states like Alabama and Massachusetts did not have current statistics. If anything, their statistics were from 2016 or 2013, making data harder to collect. Therefore, according to the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation website, the most recent report they have of the total population is as of midnight February 8, 2017. The total population is 180,885, with four of them being civil addict. Total in-custody is of 129,284 inmates, parole is 44,721, non-CDC jurisdiction is 1,022 and lastly other population #6 inmates with 5,854 (â€Å"Weekly Report of Population†, 2017). Once again looking at a weekly†¦show more content†¦This law increased the population rate in prison because not only did it affect serious crimes, it also affected those that committed petty crimes. Later on, after the prisons were so overcrowded, California ’s Proposition 36 changed the way â€Å"Three Strikes â€Å" law was. Proposition 36 allowed those to only get life sentence if their new felony conviction was serious or violent (â€Å"California Proposition†, 2017). Not only that, Martinez states that the state was then under pressure from a three-judge federal court. In 2011, the federal court ordered the state to reduce its population to 137.5 % by December 31st or be held in contempt. The judges determined that in order to meet the medical and mental health care of inmates, the only way to resolve this was to reduce prison overcrowding (â€Å"California to Challenge†, 2013). Another addition to the changes in the prison population was California’s Public Safety Realignment Act of 2011, this allowed certain offenders to serve their sentence in jail rather than prison (â€Å"Realignment Report†, 2013). Before 1998, California’s state prisons were designed to house 66,000 inmates, that m eant one inmate per prison cell. Around the time of September of 1998, there were 120,000 inmates resulting in an overcrowding level of 182 %. Construction plans after 1998 were for new prisons to hold 80,000 inmates (â€Å"Accommodating†, 1995). Referring back to the 137.5% reduction that needed to be met by three-judge panel, that would mean that it wouldShow MoreRelatedThe Unconstitutional Horrors Of Prison Overcrowding934 Words   |  4 PagesUNCONSTITUTIONAL HORRORS OF PRISON OVERCROWDING. The article is preceded with an illustration of a jail cell in Texas where a prisoner would wait to be executed. The author starts her article off with a hypothetical scenario involving convicts being executed entirely based on their healthiness. She went on to reference the 2011 Supreme Course Brown v. Plata. Mayeux mentions how the most functional of prisons have a difficult time employing certified medical staff. This prison in California was builtRead MoreThe Overcrowding Of The C orrectional Facilities1730 Words   |  7 Pagesthreat to maintaining this balance is the overcrowding of prisons. In 2011, the United States Supreme Court ruled that massive overcrowding of California prisons violates its prisoner’s eighth amendment right protecting them from cruel and unusual punishment (Boylan, 2015, p. 558). At the time California’s correctional institutions were at double their capacity, housing over 155, 500 prisoners in only 33 institutions (Specter, 2010, p. 194). The overcrowding of correctional facilities is one of theRead MoreThe Death Penalty Should Be Abolished1645 Words   |  7 PagesThere have been recent debates over the methods used for putting people to death and over the abolishment of the death penalty. Despite its controversial nature, the death penalty must be in effect to diminish the rate of crime, regulate the overcrowding in prisons and for the solemn purpose of incapacitation. The death penalty was not just put into effect in recent years, but has been around for a long time. The death penalty dates back to the colonial time period (Smith 3). According to the articleRead MoreJust Mercy By Bryan Stevenson Essay1730 Words   |  7 Pagesmurdered his stepfather because he was abusive with his mom and left her unconscious on the floor. Charlie was sentenced to an adult prison because his stepfather was an ex-police officer. 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In the 1840s U.S. reformer Dorothea Dix observed that mentally ill people in Massachusetts were still mistreated. â€Å"Timeline: Treatments for Mental Illness† continues, â€Å"they were incarcerated with criminals and left unclothed and in darkness and without hear or bathrooms. Many are chained and beaten.† Over the next 40 years Dix establishesRead MoreThe Crime Of The American Criminal Justice System1898 Words   |  8 Pages Over the last few decades, the American criminal justice system has seen an increase in the amount of drug offenses being committed. While the number of drug offenses have increased, the amount of resources for addicts who are in prison have not. Although it has been made clear that drug abuse and crime are linked, the justice system has co ntinued to punish offenders, rather than allowing them treatment. 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Despite this, statistics suggests that overall reported crime rates have remained relatively stable. (Fortner, 2013). A question is raised then, as to why incarceration rates would be on the rise despite little change in crime. This essay will attempt to answer this question and to make sense of the Prison Industrial

etitioner Leegin Creative Leather Products Free Essays

Petitioner Leegin Creative Leather Products, a manufacturer of women’s accessories under the brand name Brighton, entered into a vertical minimum price agreements with its retailer, which includes herein respondent, PSKS, Inc. Petitioner avers that such price agreements intend to encourage competition among retailers in the areas of customer service and product promotion. However, herein respondent discounted Leegin products below their prescribed minimum price. We will write a custom essay sample on etitioner Leegin Creative Leather Products or any similar topic only for you Order Now After being dropped by Leegin as one of its retailers, PSKS filed a lawsuit, arguing that Leegin violates Section 1 of the Sherman Act by engaging in anticompetitive price fixing. The District Court decided in favor of PSKS citing Dr. Miles Medical Co. v. John D. Park Sons Co. , which held that mandatory price agreements are per se illegal under the Sherman Act. Petitioner, in an appeal to the U. S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, argued that this rule was based on outdated economics and contended that a the â€Å"rule of reason† is a better legal analysis. Petitioner further claimed that price minimums will only be held illegal when proven to be anticompetitive. The appellate court ruled in favor of the district court hence, this petition for certiorari. ISSUE: Is it per se illegal for a manufacturer to set mandatory minimum prices for its products? RULE: No, it is not illegal for a manufacturer to set mandatory minimum prices for its products. Section 1 of the Sherman Act prohibits â€Å"[e]very contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States. † This provision only prohibits unreasonable restraints in trade or commerce. REASONING: The Court reasoned that Section 1 of said Act outlaws only unreasonable restraints. It further ruled that the Dr. Miles case should be overruled and that vertical price restraints are to be judged by the rule of reason. The Court, through economic literature, averred that vertical minimum price agreements are rarely anticompetitive and can often function to increase inter-brand competition. The Court further argued that instances where the price agreements are abused for anticompetitive reasons can be judged on a case-to-case basis under the rule of reason. In overruling the Dr. Miles case, the Court held that the Sherman Act must be treated as a common law statute, which should be allowed to evolve in courts as economic circumstances change. DECISION: The Supreme Court ruled for Leegin Creative Leather Products, Inc. The Supreme Court overruled the decision in the Dr. Miles case. It further ruled that in cases where vertical price restraints are involved, the rule of reason should be applied. I agree with the decision of the Supreme Court favoring Leegin Creative Leather Products, Inc. The decision in Dr. Miles was based on reasoning and economic assumptions that predate and conflict with modern economic theory. It was never shown in court that setting retail price minimums is anticompetitive. Further, retail price minimums have no absolute economic effect. In order to assess the anticompetitive tendencies of price minimums, the rule of reason must be employed. The Supreme Court, in the case at bar, employed the rule of reason in order to determine whether the actions taken by Leegin Creative Leather Products, Inc would hurt the economy. Hence, vertical price restraints should be judged by the rule of reason. How to cite etitioner Leegin Creative Leather Products, Papers

What are the discoveries of Dr. Maria Montessori free essay sample

Dr. Maria Montessori, internationally renowned child educator, was originally a medical doctor who brought the scientific methods of observation, experimentation, and research to the study of children, their development and education. As a doctor, Montessori came to believe that many of the problems of the children she was working with were educational rather than medical. In examining education she felt that children were not achieving their potential because education was not based upon science. Her first step, then, was to attempt to abandon preconceived ideas about education and to begin to study children, their development and the process of learning through scientific methods of observation and experimentation. In doing so, she made what she considered to be a number of startling discoveries. Through her research, she discovered that children possessed different and high qualities than those we usually attribute to them. Among these qualities are: a) Amazing Mental Concentration: Previously it was believed that children had short attention spans. Dr. Montessori was amazed to observe the length of time that very young children would choose to attend to tasks which interested them. When spontaneous repetition of an activity is done with interest the natural result is concentration. But concentration is not the end product of education, it’s only the beginning. Any true learning happens only with concentration. The children reveal that they can work with concentration when they find the right conditions. b) Love of Repetition: On their own, children would choose to practice things they were trying to master over and over again. When something answers an inner need meets with the inner urge the spontaneous interest is kindled. When this interest finds suitable conditions to work spontaneous repetition is resulted. When this spontaneous repetition of an activity is done with interest the natural result is concentration. For example, once a child decides to learn how to tie shoes, the child may tie and untie shoes many times, continuing the repetition until the task is mastered. c) Love of order: Whereas we normally think of children as messy, Dr. Montessori found that children have a natural inclination for organization and orderliness. This natural inclination can be helped and developed if provision is made to foster it. This order need not be only with things in the environment but also with values, functions and other human activities. The child needs to experience human values like â€Å"telling the truth† being practised. If not so, the child gets confused and this can create a warp in his development. A contrary instruction about behaviour muddles his decision. We need to remember that the young child is in process of building his personality which lasts his lifetime. He needs consistency in everything in his environment. It takes a while for him to understand that things also can be different. d) Freedom of choice: Children like to choose things they do. If materials are set out for children so that they have easy access to them, children will choose, take and replace them with without the need of assistance from an adult. Dr. Montessori found out that the child is capable of choosing the type of activity that satisfies his inner urge and offers challenge. When an environment provides many options in developmental activities, the children choose activities according to their capacities. This further helps them to enhance their abilities and developmental attributes. The adult needs to be the instigators but only have to provide the necessary conditions. Total development results only when the child can work in the various fields of human activity. e) Children Prefer Work to Play: One of the greatest surprises for Dr. Montessori was the discovery that children preferred work to play. Sometimes adults tend to think children only want to play and not to work. However, Dr. Montessori found that play was a substitute for what the children really wanted to do, but couldn’t. For example, children like to play â€Å"house†. They may pretend to cook, to bake pies, to clean house, etc. however, if given a choice, the children prefer to be in the real kitchen with their mother (or father) learning how to prepare â€Å"real† food. The introduction of exercise of practical life as developmental activities was Dr. Montessori’s contribution to education. She found out how the children needed to perform the activities in daily life because they brought the intelligence, will and voluntary movements together. This co-ordination brought about integration of the personality. f) No Need for Reward and Punishment: Montessori discovered that children are intrinsically motivated to work. No one wants to be problem. So, they do not need external rewards and punishments. What they do need is help. The adult can help the child by showing the child how to do what he or she is trying to accomplish. Accomplishment, competence, and being a contributing member of a society are rewarding in themselves, and it is reward enough. There are many instances in Dr. Montessori’s work where she explains why she â€Å"eventually†¦gave up either punishing or rewarding the children†. She explains that this method is â€Å"always a form of repression†, and is based upon our – in her opinion tragically erroneous – belief that children â€Å"come into the world bad and full of naughtiness. † She found, after careful observation, that both punishment and reward were equally ineffective tools for supporting the type of development that she felt was important (i. e. the normalization of the individual and the valorisation of mankind). In fact she observed that children were disinterested in both of these methods and often could not even tell the difference between them. g) The Children Refuse Sweets: Children often show an indifference to the allurements of sweets when placed in conflict with the interest of the mind. Children love to work purposefully. If it corresponds with the inner development need they work until they reach their goal, in this any external stimulant effects negligibly. The inner drive is sufficient to show them the right path. h) Lovers of Silence: Whereas it is easy to think of children as noisy, Montessori discovered that children enjoy finding out how quiet they can be. The children like to listen to silence and to soft sounds. It is like a game to see if they can move a chair without making a sound. i) Sense of Personal Dignity: Children have a deep sense of personal dignity just as adults do. They want to be capable and held in high regard. They want to be able to do things for themselves. They can get embarrassed and can feel ashamed. A child would rather tie his own shoes than have tied for him. j) Desire to Read and Write: In the beginning, Dr. Montessori didn’t believe that young children of four and five years of age should be involved in reading and writing. However, the children showed such interest that she provided some beginning materials. She was astonished by how the children seeped to â€Å"burst spontaneously† into writing and then reading if provided with the right materials. Dr. Montessori discovered that the children are often seen to behave in a certain manner; destructive, disorderly, stubborn, disobedient etc. But in specially prepared environments and with specially trained adults they show orderly, responsible, loving behaviour, both are seemingly real. As a reason of contradiction, Dr. Montessori explains that the second instance is the real one and they very common behaviour is the result of the child not finding the right conditions for development. This discovery was possible because she could witness this grandeur of human normality. It is well known that human life is a series of steps in gaining independence and credit would go to Dr. Montessori who pointed that this is true in child’s life also. All the help we offer should lead the child to independence in his individual and social life. We might conclude by saying Dr. Montessori calls upon every adult human being to develop the humility to learn from the children in order to help the child create a healthy human being.